ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS AND HEALTH OUTCOMES IN LOWER MIDDLE INCOME WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES
Keywords:
Ecological footprint, life expectancy, infant mortality, maternal mortality, Augmented Mean GroupAbstract
This study examines the effects of ecological footprints on health outcomes in seven lower
middle-income West African countries over the period 1990–2024, using the Common
Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) and Augmented Mean Group (AMG) estimators,
which account for cross-sectional dependence, slope heterogeneity, and non-stationarity in
panel data analysis. The empirical results show that an increase in ecological footprint reduces
life expectancy, while increasing maternal mortality and infant mortality. At the component
level, built-up land, forest products, and fishing grounds emerge as the most significant drivers
of deteriorating health outcomes in the region. In contrast, government health expenditure and
urbanization significantly reduce both maternal and infant mortality, while secondary school
enrollment positively influences life expectancy and also helps to reduce infant mortality.
However, GDP per capita is found to have no statistically significant effect on any of the health
outcome indicators. Overall, the findings underscore the urgent need for environmentally
sustainable development policies, as well as targeted investments in healthcare and education,
to improve population health outcomes across lower-middle-income West African countries
